HIERARCHY OF ANALYSIS

 

HIERARCHY OF ANALYSIS

Food undergoes a multi-stage journey from production, processing, distribution, and retail shops or restaurants before it reaches your plate. Throughout this process, food may become unsafe due to various factors, with the most used terms for such issues being 'contamination' and 'adulteration.' Both contamination and adulteration involve the presence of substances unintended in the food product, but the key distinction lies in their intent.

Contamination is typically unintentional and can result from natural causes, such as the uptake of heavy metals from the soil by plants, or from lapses in quality control during food production, like the introduction of foreign materials like hair or glass.

Adulteration, on the other hand, is often economically driven, involving the deliberate substitution or dilution of high-quality ingredients with cheaper alternatives. For example, diluting milk with water to increase its volume. Adulteration may not always lead to immediate health risks, but it invariably introduces unknown hazards and associated risks to the food product.

Food spoilage occurs when there is an undesirable alteration in the food's normal characteristics, affecting its smell, taste, texture, or appearance. Bacteria, molds, and yeasts are common culprits of spoilage, as seen in the appearance of green fuzzy patches on bread, for instance.

Detecting unsafe, adulterated, or spoiled food can be accomplished using our senses, including sight, smell, touch, and hearing. For example, fuzzy and discoloured mold growth, a soft and mushy texture, and a foul odor are signs of spoilage in fruits and vegetables. In canned foods, bulging cans, strong odors upon opening, gas or spurting liquids, and cloudy, mushy food are indicative of spoilage. Sensory examination can also uncover common adulterants, such as visually identifying the addition of papaya seeds to black pepper.

However, it's important to note that not all unsafe or adulterated foods may exhibit poor quality, making it necessary to conduct different levels of analysis to distinguish between safe and unsafe food. Basic analysis can be performed at home or in a school laboratory using minimal equipment, chemicals, and labware. These tests often indicate the presence or absence of negative attributes in a food sample.

Intermediate tests require slightly more advanced equipment and skills and provide quantitative information, revealing the quantity of specific attributes in a food sample. For example, the "Food Safety on Wheels" mobile lab can perform 23 tests to detect adulteration in milk and milk products, including the values of Fat, Solids-Not-Fat, Protein, and the detection of common adulterants.

Advanced analysis, conducted in specialized laboratories by highly skilled technicians using state-of-the-art equipment, is necessary to detect very low levels of negative and positive attributes or obtain specific information about a food's origin. Techniques like inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) can detect heavy metal contaminants, while High Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC) is used to analyse organic compounds. Gas Chromatography/Mass Spectrometry (GC/MS) separates and identifies chemical mixtures at the molecular level, while Liquid Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (LC/MS) combines the separating power of HPLC with mass spectrometry for analysis.

In summary, food safety and quality assessment can be performed at various levels of analysis, ranging from basic sensory examination to advanced laboratory techniques, to ensure the safety and integrity of our food supply.

Reference : fssai

 

Aspartame Hazard - Non-Sugar Sweetener

The World Health Organization (WHO), the Joint Expert Committee on Food Additives (JECFA), and the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) have all released assessments of the non-sugar sweetener aspartame's effects on human health today. IARC classified aspartame as probably carcinogenic to humans (IARC Group 2B) due to "limited evidence" for its carcinogenicity in humans, while JECFA reiterated the recommended daily consumption of 40 mg/kg body weight.

Since the 1980s, diet drinks, chewing gum, gelatin, ice cream, dairy goods including yogurt and morning cereal, toothpaste, and pharmaceuticals like cough drops and chewable vitamins have all employed aspartame, an artificial (chemical) sweetener.

"One of the biggest causes of death worldwide is cancer. Cancer claims the lives of 1 in 6 people each year. In an effort to lower these figures and the human toll, science is constantly developing to evaluate potential beginning or facilitating factors of cancer, according to Dr. Francesco Branca, Director of the Department of Nutrition and Food Safety, WHO. "While safety is not a major concern at the doses that are commonly used," the assessments of aspartame have shown, "potential effects have been described that need to be investigated by more and better studies."

To evaluate the potential carcinogenic risk and other health hazards connected with aspartame intake, the two organizations carried out separate but complementary reviews. IARC had never assessed aspartame before, although JECFA has done so three times.

Both analyses recognized gaps in the evidence for cancer (and other health impacts) after reading the pertinent scientific literature.

A kind of liver cancer called hepatocellular carcinoma, for which there is particular evidence, led the IARC to classify aspartame as probably carcinogenic to humans (Group 2B). Additionally, there was scant evidence of cancer in research animals and scant information regarding potential cancer-causing pathways.

JECFA came to the conclusion that there was insufficient evidence to justify changing the previously defined recommended daily intake (ADI) for aspartame, which is 0 to 40 mg/kg body weight. Therefore, the committee reiterated that it is safe for a person to ingest up to this daily limit. For instance, an adult weighing 70 kg would need to consume more than 9–14 cans of diet soft drinks per day, assuming no further intake from other food sources, to go above the permissible daily intake.

By identifying an agent's particular characteristics and potential for harm, such as cancer, the IARC's hazard identifications are the first important step in understanding the carcinogenicity of an agent. The strength of the scientific evidence supporting a substance's ability to cause human cancer is reflected in IARC classifications, but not the likelihood that a person would get cancer at a certain exposure level. All exposure categories (such as food and occupational) are taken into account during the IARC hazard evaluation. The third highest level of the four categories of the strength-of-evidence classification, Group 2B, is typically employed when there is either weak but not conclusive evidence for cancer in humans or strong but not both conclusive evidence for cancer in experimental animals.

Dr. Mary Schubauer-Berigan of the IARC Monographs program said, "The findings of limited evidence of carcinogenicity in humans and animals, and of limited mechanistic evidence on how carcinogenicity may occur, underscore the need for more research to clarify whether consumption of aspartame poses a carcinogenic hazard."

JECFA's risk assessments establish the likelihood that a certain form of harm, such as cancer, may manifest under particular circumstances and exposure levels. JECFA frequently considers IARC categories while making decisions.

According to Dr. Moez Sanaa, WHO's Head of the Standards and Scientific Advice on Food and Nutrition Unit, "JECFA also considered the evidence on cancer risk, in animal and human studies, and concluded that the evidence of an association between aspartame consumption and cancer in humans is not convincing." "In the present cohorts, we need better research with longer follow-up and repeated dietary questionnaires. Randomized controlled trials are required, as well as investigations into the molecular processes involved in the regulation of insulin, metabolic syndrome, and diabetes, particularly in relation to carcinogenicity.

Based on scientific data gathered from a variety of sources, including peer-reviewed papers, government reports, and studies carried out for regulatory purposes, the IARC and JECFA evaluated the effects of aspartame. Both committees have taken procedures to assure the independence and trustworthiness of their assessments, which have been verified by independent experts who have evaluated the studies.

IARC and WHO will continue to keep an eye on new information and support independent research teams in their efforts to do more studies on the potential link between aspartame exposure and consumer health impacts.

Reference: WHO

Post-processing control strategies for STEC in beef

The intended use of raw beef is an important factor to consider in the selection

and implementation of methods for STEC control. If the product is not intended

to remain intact, STEC present on the exterior of meat may be internalized during

the non-intact production process, such as grinding and mechanical tenderization.

In such cases, cooking to a rare or medium-rare internal temperature may not

be sufficient to destroy STEC throughout the product. It is critical, therefore, that

primal, sub-primal, and other cuts intended to be non-intact products should be

treated by interventions to reduce or eliminate STEC.

During carcass fabrication, the carcass is broken down into consumer portions,

which includes additional product preparation and handling. All these steps

increase the surface area of the product, the likelihood of contamination spread is

great, therefore the application of inventions to reduce STEC at fabrication can be

impactful.

During mechanical tenderization of meats, the needles or blades used in the process

of tenderization can physically transfer foodborne pathogens from the surface into

the interior of the beef cuts. This has prompted the development of interventions

that can reduce the internalization of surface STEC (Currie et al., 2019). Some nations

have required registered plants to affix a label (Mechanically Tenderized Beef

[MTB]) to products and to include safe cooking instructions for the consumers,

stating “Cook to a minimum internal temperature of 63 °C” (Health Canada, 2014).

Raw ground beef and ground beef-based products (e.g. hamburger patties), pose a

higher risk to human health than intact beef because of its greater contact surface

and the higher degree of handling and processing involved with production.

During the mincing/grinding process, microbial transfer from the external surfaces

into the mass of the ground beef is likely to occur; therefore, it is important to

implement GHP, GMP, and HACCP principles as well as intervention measures

throughout the ground beef production chain to minimize STEC exposure and

contamination. In several nations, all beef used in grinding is required to be tested

for contamination by specific STEC serotypes (USDA, 2016, 2017).

Despite all the control measures applied at the previous stages of production,

contamination of STEC in ground beef can still be detected, albeit mostly at low

concentration. This remains a critical issue, however, because of the low infectious

dose of STEC, hence interventions still need to be applied at all stages of ground

beef production, product manufacturing, packaging, and distribution.

Since ground beef is perishable, it is important to apply control measures

properly during the transport and storage of the carcasses/beef cuts before grinding.

Maintaining temperature (< 7 °C) is an important parameter that should be

controlled throughout the ground beef production chain to reduce the growth of

STEC through distribution, retail sale, and until the product reaches the consumer

(Duffy et al., 2005). Packaging processes, including interventions, for ground/

minced products are also critical for ensuring STEC control. Product labels should

contain sufficient information about interventions applied, while also guiding the

purchaser with safe handling and preparation guidelines (e.g. use-by dates and the

need for thorough cooking on the label).

Although the implementation of the interventions in the post-processing phase are

mostly to improve microbial safety of fresh ground beef, other essential parameters

must also be considered, such as the extension of product shelf-life and consumer

acceptance (e.g. maintenance of sensory qualities without altering organoleptic

characteristics; inclusion of package labeling regarding the treatment, guidance

for safe handling).

The antimicrobial interventions implemented throughout the beef production

the chain can vary depending on the country’s regulations and the volume of production

as well as the destination of the product (e.g. local consumption vs export market).

Intervention strategies used in post-processing should be safe and suitable to be

broadly approved by the regulations of different nations.

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Reference: Control measures for Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli (STEC) associated with meat and dairy products Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations World Health Organization

Wheat Flour Fortified With Iron, Folic Acid, and Vitamin B12

 

Advantages of Fortifying Wheat Flour

(1) Wheat flour fortification is a safe and effective means of improving public health.

(2) Fortified wheat flour is an excellent vehicle for adding nutrients to the diet as wheat flour is commonly consumed by everyone.

(3) Cost-effective method to prevent nutritional deficiencies.

(4) During the milling of wheat, nutrient losses take place. Fortification helps in adding back these nutrients.

(5) When added to wheat flour, Iron, Folic acid, and Vitamin B12 are essential for fighting anemia and blood formation.

Method

The first step is designing the micronutrient premix. A premix contains a uniform mixture of the desired nutrients in the required amounts, which will help in the uniform distribution of the fortificants in the flour. The designed micronutrient premix is accurately metered through a volumetric feeder into the flour. These feeders consist of a rotating feed screw that is driven by a motor, the speed of which can be adjusted to modify the rate of addition of the premix. These feeders either make use of gravity or a pneumatic system to dispense the premix into the flour.

In order to achieve uniform distribution of the fortificants in the flour, the feeders must be placed at a centralized location with respect to the conveyor carrying the flour. A centrally located feeder will ensure that there will be sufficient time provided for the fortificants to mix before the flour is collected and sent for packaging and storage. The plant should have the right mixers, feeders, and quality control equipment so as to ensure that the fortified flour has effective levels of the desired fortificants present in the finished product.

The process flowchart 

Reference: fssai

Antifungal activity of potential probiotic Limosilactobacillus fermentum strains against toxigenic aflatoxin-producing aspergilli

Antifungal activity of potential probiotic strains against Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus niger is shown in Figure. (A) A. flavus covered the entire plate in the absence of probiotics. (B) The potential probiotics ABRIIFBI-6 and ABRIIFBI-7 were able to inhibit the growth of A. flavus, whereas PTCC 1745, used as a control. (C) A. niger covered the entire plate in the absence of probiotics. (D) The potential probiotic ABRIIFBI-6 was able to inhibit the growth of A. niger similarly to A. flavus, but ABRIIFBI-7 only slightly inhibit the growth of A. niger. Furthermore, strain PTCC 1745, used as a control.

See full Article :

Liver Function Test / Liver Profile

Liver Function Test:

Liver function tests are blood tests used to help diagnose and monitor liver disease or damage. The tests measure the levels of certain enzymes and proteins in blood.

Liver function tests can be used to:

• Screen for liver infections, such as hepatitis.
• Monitor the progression of a disease, such as viral or alcoholic hepatitis, and determine the treatment.
• Measure the severity of a disease, particularly scarring of the liver (cirrhosis).
• Monitor possible side effects of medications.

General symptoms of liver problems include: Lack of appetite, Nausea or vomiting, Weakness or feeling very tired, Yellowish eyes or skin (jaundice).

Some common liver function tests include:

1. ALTL - Alanine Aminotransferase (ALT)
2. ASTL-  Aspartate Aminotransferase (AST)
3. ALB2 - Albumin Blood Test
4. BIL - Bilirubin
5. ALP2L-  (Alkaline phosphatase)
6. TP- Total Protein
7. Gamma-glutamyltransferase (GGT)
8. L-lactate dehydrogenase (LD)
9. Prothrombin time (PT)

ALTL - Alanine Aminotransferase (ALT) / (Normal Range: 7 to 55 units per liter (U/L)

                Alanine aminotransferase is an enzyme that is concentrated primarily in the liver. ALT levels can increase when liver cells are damaged, so the test can be used to evaluate the condition of the liver. ALT testing may be useful in diagnosis of symptoms that can be tied to liver problems like nausea and vomiting, abdominal pain, itching, jaundice, fatigue, and appetite loss.

                High levels of ALT can be a result of damage or injury to cells. Because ALT is most concentrated in the liver, abnormal ALT test results are generally associated with conditions affecting the liver, such as inflammation (hepatitis) and scarring (cirrhosis).

ASTL- Aspartate Aminotransferase (AST) / (Normal Range: 5 to 40 units per liter (U/L)

                Aspartate aminotransferase (AST) is an enzyme AST exists mostly in the liver, but it is found in numerous tissues in the body.AST may be measured if you have had jaundice, fatigue, swelling, unexplained weight loss, itching, nausea and vomiting, or other symptoms that are associated with liver problems.

                AST levels in the blood can rise when cells are damaged, elevated AST can reflect health conditions, including liver diseases like cirrhosis or hepatitis.Very high levels of AST often reflect short-term liver damage while smaller but persistent elevations in AST over time can be tied to chronic conditions.

ALB2 - Albumin Blood Test / (Normal Range: 3.5 to 5.5 grams per deciliter g/dL)

                Albumin is a protein.Test used forMeasure the potential liver disease such as jaundice or fatigue or symptoms of possible kidney disease such as abnormal urination or unexplained swelling, particularly of the feet and legs.

                Abnormally low albumin levels can also be tied to kidney conditions, malnutrition, inflammation, infection, thyroid disease, and gastrointestinal problems

                Abnormally high levels of albumin most often occur as a result of dehydration, which may be caused by other conditions such as severe diarrhoea.

BIL – Bilirubin / (Normal Range: 0.3 and 1.2 milligrams per deciliter (mg/dL)

                To screen for or monitor liver disorders or hemolytic anemia; to monitor neonatal jaundice. Bilirubin is an orange-yellow pigment Heme is a component of hemoglobin, which is found in red blood cells (RBCs) Bilirubin is ultimately processed by the liver.Test measures the amount of bilirubin in the blood to evaluate a person’s liver function or to help diagnose anemias caused by RBC destruction (hemolytic anemia).

Unconjugated (indirect) bilirubin, there typically is a problem associated with decreased elimination of bilirubin by the liver cells.Some conditions that may cause this include: Viral hepatitis (hepatitis A, hepatitis B, hepatitis C), Drug reactions, and Alcoholic liver disease.Conjugated (direct) bilirubin is also elevated more than unconjugated (indirect) bilirubin when the liver is able to process bilirubin but there is blockage of the bile ducts.This may occur, for example, with: Gallstones present in the bile ducts, Tumors, Scarring of the bile ducts.

Increased bilirubin levels may result from the accelerated breakdown of red blood cells due to: Blood type incompatibility between the mother and her newborn, causing hemolytic disease of the newborn (HDN), certain congenital infections, Lack of oxygen (hypoxia), Diseases that can affect the liver.

ALP2L- (Alkaline phosphatase) / (Normal Range: 40 to 129 units per liter (U/L)

Alkaline phosphatase, or ALP, is another liver enzyme that is measured in a standard liver panel or comprehensive metabolic panel. ALP is produced and found in the liver. But it is also present in a number of other tissues in the body, including the bones.

Test results that are below normal are sometimes found in people with malnutrition or anaemia.

Higher-than-normal levels of ALP indicates liver damage or disease, a blocked bile duct, or bone disease.

TP Total Protein / (Normal Range: 6 to 8.3 g/dL)

                Albumin and globulin are two types of protein in your body. The total protein test measures the total amount albumin and globulin in your body. It’s used as part of your routine health checkup.It may also be used if you have unexpected weight loss, fatigue, or the symptoms of a kidney or liver disease. Albumin proteins keep fluid from leaking out of your blood vessels. Globulin proteins play an important role in your immune system.

                Low total protein may indicate: bleeding, liver disorder, kidney disorder, such as a nephrotic disorder or glomerulonephritis, malnutrition, malabsorption conditions, such as celiac disease or inflammatory bowel disease, extensive burns, agammaglobulinemia,which is an inherited condition in which your blood doesn’t have enough of a type of globulin, affecting the strength of your immune system, inflammatory conditions, delayed post-surgery recovery.

                Elevated total protein may indicate: inflammation or infections, such as viral hepatitis B or C, or HIV, bone marrow disorders, such as multiple myeloma or Waldenstrom’s disease.

Gamma-glutamyltransferase (GGT) / (Normal Range: 8 to 61 units per liter (U/L)

GGT is an enzyme in the blood. Higher-than-normal levels may indicate liver or bile duct damage.

L-lactate dehydrogenase (LD) / (Normal Range: 122 to 222 units per liter (U/L)

LD is an enzyme found in the liver. Elevated levels may indicate liver damage but can be elevated in many other disorders.

Prothrombin time (PT) / (Normal Range: 9.4 to 12.5 seconds)

PT is the time it takes your blood to clot. Increased PT may indicate liver damage Medications that thin your blood, such as warfarin (Coumadin), can also lead to a longer PT. 

Sample Analysis:

Sample types:  Serum, plasma, urine, CSF, hemolysate and whole blood (HbA1c).

Instrumentation: Cobas Integra 400 Plus

LFT are performed by Cobas Integra 400+ system. The COBAS INTEGRA 400 plus system has up to 36 different on-board assays.All types of sample matrices are measured with one of 4 different measuring technologies – absorbance photometry, turbidimetry, fluorescence polarisation and ion selective potentiometry

Mycotoxins - Chemical Hazard in Food

Mycotoxins

 

Mycotoxins are a chemically diverse range of secondary metabolites and are produced by various fungal species (Aspergillus, Penicillium, Fusarium, and Claviceps). Several hundred different mycotoxins have been identified, but the most commonly observed mycotoxins that present a concern to human health and livestock include aflatoxins, ochratoxin A, patulin, fumonisins and zearalenone.

They are toxic to humans and most are chemically stable and survive prolonged heat processing.

Aflatoxins are difuranocoumarin derivatives produced by a polyketide pathway

A.flavus and A. parasiticus, which produce aflatoxins in maize, groundnuts, tree nuts, and, less frequently, other commodities

A.ochraceus and A. carbonarius, which produce ochratoxin A commonly occur in grapes, dried vine fruits, wine, and coffee.

Penicillium verrucosum also produces ochratoxin A but occurs only in cool temperate climates, where it infects small grains. Ochratoxin A is a nephrotoxin to all animal species studied to date and is most likely toxic to humans. ochratoxin A is a liver toxin, an immune suppressant, a potent teratogen, and a carcinogen (2).

Aspergillus niger also produces fumonisins.

F. graminearum is the major producer of deoxynivalenol and zearalenone, is pathogenic on maize, wheat, and barley 

Claviceps purpurea produces sclerotia among the seeds in grasses, including wheat, barley, and triticale.

Fusarium fungi are common to the soil and produce a range of different toxins, including trichothecenes such as deoxynivalenol (DON), nivalenol (NIV) and T-2 and HT-2 toxins, as well as zearalenone (ZEN) and fumonisins.

Patulin is a toxic fungal metabolite produced by certain moulds of the Penicillium, Aspergillus and Byssochlamys.

Occurrence in Foods:

They commonly enter the food chain through contaminated food and feed crops, mainly cereals.

Other occurrence in foods include nuts, spices, dried fruits, apples and coffee beans, often under warm and humid conditions.

Animals consuming mycotoxin-contaminated feeds can produce meat and milk that contain toxic residues and biotransformation products. Thus, aflatoxins in cattle feed can be metabolized by cows into aflatoxin M1, which is then secreted in milk (1).

Ochratoxin in pig feed can accumulate in porcine tissues (2)

Effects on Health:

The toxic effects of mycotoxins can be significant and varied depending on the toxin, dose, host and food matrix involved.

These effects include: Carcinogenicity (cancer causing) especially in the liver, Hepatotoxicity (liver damage), Mutagenicity (changes to DNA), Other toxic effects include kidney disease, immuno-suppression and disturbance to the nervous and hormone systems.

Aflatoxin is associated with both toxicity and carcinogenicity in human and animal populations. The diseases caused by aflatoxin consumption are loosely called aflatoxicoses. Acute aflatoxicosis results in death; chronic aflatoxicosis results in cancer, immune suppression, and other “slow” pathological conditions (3, 4).

Control and Preventive Measures:

Good Agricultural Practice:

Proper preparation of the land, crop rotation, use of fungus and/or pest resistant cultivars, control of insect damage to the growing crop, control of fungal infection, prevention of stress to the growing crop, e.g. drought, weeds, harvesting at the appropriate time, and correct handling and storage after harvesting.

Monitoring Programs:

Inspection and sampling of commodities intended for introduction into the food supply chain. Maximum levels are defined and often legally controlled in specific legislation. Rejection and removal of failed batches is a common control measure

Pest Control Program:

Pest damage may result in heating and moisture generation, leading to fungal growth and mycotoxin production in localised “hot spots”. Therefore, it is important to have adequate pest control programs in place.

Inactivation of Toxins:

This can be achieved through roasting of peanuts, heat and moisture control, chemical control, e.g. acids, H2O2, NH3, hypochlorites.

Testing

Monitoring using analytical methods have been developed based on HPLC, TLC and ELISA.

Bioterrorism

Mycotoxins can be used as chemical warfare agents (5). There is considerable evidence that Iraqi scientists developed aflatoxins as part of their bioweapons program during the 1980s. Toxigenic strains of Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus parasiticus were cultured, and aflatoxins were extracted to produce over 2,300 liters of concentrated toxin (5). The majority of this aflatoxin was used to fill warheads; the remainder was stockpiled. Aflatoxins seem a curious choice for chemical warfare because the induction of liver cancer is “hardly a knockout punch on the battlefield” (6).

Reference

1. Van Egmond, H. P. 1989. Aflatoxin M1: occurrence, toxicity, regulation, p. 11-55. In H. P. Van Egmond (ed.), Mycotoxins in dairy products. Elsevier Applied Science, London.
2. Rutqvist, L., N.-E. Bjorklund, K. Hult, E. Hockby, and B. Carlsson. 1978. Ochratoxin A as the cause of spontaneous nephropathy in fattening pigs. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 36:920-925.
3. Hsieh, D. 1988. Potential human health hazards of mycotoxins, p. 69-80. In S. Natori, K. Hashimoto, and Y. Ueno (ed.), Mycotoxins and phytotoxins. Third Joint Food and Agriculture Organization/W.H.O./United Nations E? Program International Conference of Mycotoxins. Elsevier, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
4. Beardall, J. M., and J. D. Miller. 1994. Disease in humans with mycotoxins as possible causes, p. 487-539. In J. D. Miller and H. L. Trenholm (ed.), Mycotoxins in grains. Compounds other than aflatoxin. Eagan Press, St. Paul, Minn.
5. Ciegler, A. 1986. Mycotoxins: a new class of chemical weapons. NBC Defense & Technol. Int., April 1986, p. 52-57.
6. Stone, R. 2002. Peering into the shadows: Iraq's bioweapons program. Science 297:1110-1112.

Overview of Pathogenic Bacteria: Bacillus cereus

  Pathogenic Bacteria: Bacillus cereus

Industrial Microbiology Techniques based on International Standards ISO/ BAM, etc...

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Bacillus cereus (B. cereus) is a Gram-positive, facultatively anaerobic, endospore-forming, large rod and has colonial morphology of about 2-7 mm in diameter, with a white granular texture.

The optimal growth temperature is 28°C to 35°C, with a minimum growth temperature of 4°C and a maximum of 48°C. Growth can occur in pH ranges from 4.9 to 9.

Pathogenicity: It causes two kinds of food-borne disease:

1. Intoxication due to a toxin performed in the food
2. Infection is due to the ingestion of cells that produce enterotoxins in the small intestine.

Sources: Widespread in the environment being found in soil, water, air, and vegetable matter.

 Rice products, pasta, vegetables, herbs, spices, milk, and meat.

Illness, Symptoms, and Complications:

B. cereus food poisoning is caused by toxins produced during the growth of the bacteria (emetic toxin (ETE)) and three different enterotoxins: Hemolysin (HBL), Nhe, and EntK. These toxins cause two distinctly different forms of food poisoning – the emetic/vomiting type or diarrhoeal type. Symptoms usually last around 24 hours. EntK ( Not involved in food poisoning).

Emetic-type symptoms include nausea, vomiting, and abdominal cramps.

Diarrhoeal-type symptoms include watery diarrhea, abdominal cramps, and pain with occasional nausea and vomiting.

Although both forms are self-limiting more severe cases have been reported which included complications such as pyogenic infections, gangrene, septic meningitis, lung abscesses, and infant death.

Controls to reduce the risk:

Foods should be cooked to a core temperature of 75°C (167°F) e.g. 70°C (158°F) for 2 minutes which will destroy the cells however in order to prevent the spores from germinating it is essential that rapid cooling takes place. It may be beneficial to implement or install rapid chilling equipment to speed up the cooling process.

Hot food should be maintained at a temperature greater than or equal to 63°C (145.4°F) and chilled food should ideally be maintained at a temperature less than or equal to 4°C (39.2°F).

Testing Method

ISO 7932:2004/AMD 1:2020 Microbiology of food and animal feeding stuff — Horizontal method for the enumeration of presumptive Bacillus cereus — Colony-count technique at 30 degrees.

BAM Chapter 14: Bacillus cereus; Authors: Sandra M. Tallent, Ann Knolhoff, E. Jeffery Rhodehamel (ret.), Stanley M. Harmon (ret.), and Reginald W. Bennett (ret.)

Lead Toxicity / Poisoning

Lead is the most important toxic heavy element in the environment. Due to its important physico-chemical properties, its use can be retraced to historical times. Globally it is an abundantly distributed, important yet dangerous environmental chemical (8).

Human exposure

Occupational exposure is a major source for lead poisoning in adults.

Exposed to lead through occupational and environmental sources.

This mainly results from:

Inhalation of lead particles generated by burning materials containing lead, for example, during smelting, recycling, stripping leaded paint, and using leaded gasoline or leaded aviation fuel; and

Ingestion of lead-contaminated dust, water (from leaded pipes), and food (from lead-glazed or lead-soldered containers).

Once lead enters the body, it is distributed to organs such as the brain, kidneys, liver and bones. The body stores lead in the teeth and bones where it accumulates over time. Lead stored in bone may be re-mobilized into the blood during pregnancy, thus exposing the fetus.

• Lead in the soil can settle on or be absorbed by plants grown for fruits or vegetables or plants used as ingredients in food, including dietary supplements.
• Lead in plants or water may also be ingested and absorbed by the animals we eat, which is then passed on to us.
• Lead in some pottery and other food contact surfaces containing lead can pass or leach lead into food or drinks when food is prepared, served, or stored in them

Lead toxicity: a review (ncbi)

Effects on Health:

Lead is a highly poisonous metal affecting almost every organ in the body. Of all the organs, the nervous system is the mostly affected target in lead toxicity, both in children and adults. The toxicity in children is however of a greater impact than in adults. This is because their tissues, internal as well as external, are softer than in adults. Long-term exposure of adults can result in decreased performance in some tests of cognitive performance that measure functions of the nervous system. Infants and young children are especially sensitive to even low levels of lead, which may contribute to behavioural problems, learning deficits and lowered IQ (9). 

Types of lead Poisoning.

	Exposure	Lead levels (µg/dl)	Clinical symptoms
Acute poisoning	Intense exposure of short duration	100–120	Muscle pain, fatigue, abdominal pain, headache, vomiting, seizures and coma
Chronic poisoning	Repeated low-level exposure over a prolonged period	40–60	Persistent vomiting, encephalopathy, lethargy, delirium, convulsions and coma

Toxicity of lead: A review

After absorption, Pb is distributed in the body through red blood cells (RBC). Pb is mostly bound to hemoglobin rather than RBC membrane after entering the cell [2]. The hematopoietic is a sensitive system for critical Pb toxicity and may lead to anemia [1].

Histopathological observations confirmed that Pb ions are transported to the liver, where they can induce chronic damage to the liver.

Pb toxicity also increases blood enzyme levels and reduces protein synthesis [3-5].

Pb imposes toxic effects on kidneys through structural damage and changes in the excretory function [3-5].

The other organ and tissue systems affected due to lead toxicity are the nervous, cardiovascular, and reproductive systems [1,2,6].

Pb toxicity imposes mineralizing of bones and teeth, which is a major body burden.

The International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) stated that inorganic Pb is probably carcinogenic to humans (Group 2A) based on limited evidence in humans and sufficient evidence in animals. (1, 2-7)

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (USA) have set the standard elevated blood lead level for adults to be 10 μg/dL and for children 5 μg/dL of the whole blood (CDC, 2012, 10).

Prevention & Control

Lead poisoning causes severe effects and is a matter of serious concern, yet importantly, it is preventable. The best approach is to avoid exposure to lead (11). It is recommended to frequently wash the children´s hands and also to increase their intake of calcium and iron. It is also recommended to discourage children from putting their hands, which can be contaminated, in their mouth habitually, thus increasing the chances of getting poisoned by lead.

Vacuuming frequently and eliminating the use and or presence of lead containing objects like blinds and jewellery in the house can also help to prevent exposures. House pipes containing lead or plumbing solder fitted in old houses should be replaced to avoid lead contamination through drinking water. 

Bottled Water

The FDA, through its regulatory authority under the Federal Food, Drug, & cosmetic Act, limits levels of lead (as well as other contaminants) in bottled water by establishing allowable levels in the quality standard for bottled water. For lead, this level is set at 5 ppb. This level is below the 15 ppb allowed by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency for lead in public drinking water, as the tap water standard takes into account lead that can leach from pipes.

Juice and Candy

The FDA has issued recommended guidelines to industry on specific foods and drinks more likely to be consumed by small children, including limiting lead in candy to a maximum level of 0.1 ppm and in juice to 50 ppb.

Reference:

1. Flora S.J.S. Nutritional components modify metal absorption, toxic response and chelation therapy. J. Nutr. Environ. Med. 2002; 12:53–67. doi: 10.1080/13590840220123361. 

2. Abadin H., Ashizawa A., Stevens Y.W., Llados F., Diamond G., Sage G., Quinones A., Bosch S.J., Swarts S.G. Toxicological Profile for Lead, Atlanta (GA): Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (US) Lewis Publishers; Boca Raton, FL, USA: 2007. 

3. Yuan G., Dai S., Yin Z., Lu H., Jia R., Xu J., Song X., Li L., Shu Y., Zhao X. Toxicological assessment of combined lead and cadmium: Acute and sub-chronic toxicity study in rats. Food Chem. Toxicol. 2014;65:260–268. doi: 10.1016/j.fct.2013.12.041. 

4. Cobbina S.J., Chen Y., Zhou Z., Wu X., Zhao T., Zhang Z., Feng W., Wang W., Li Q., Wu X., et al. Toxicity assessment due to sub-chronic exposure to individual and mixtures of four toxic heavy metals. J. Hazard. Mater. 2015;294:109–120. doi: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2015.03.057. 

5. Shaban El-Neweshy M., Said El-Sayed Y. Influence of vitamin C supplementation on lead-induced histopathological alterations in male rats. Exp. Toxicol. Pathol. 2011;63:221–227. doi: 10.1016/j.etp.2009.12.003. 

6. Abdou H.M., Hassan M.A. Protective role of omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid against lead acetate-induced toxicity in liver and kidney of female rats. BioMed Res. Int. 2014;2014:435857. doi: 10.1155/2014/435857.

7. Carocci A., Catalano A., Lauria G., Sinicropi M.S., Genchi G. Lead toxicity, antioxidant defense and environment. Rev. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 2016; 238: 45–67.

8. Mahaffey KR. Environmental lead toxicity: nutrition as a component of intervention. Environ Health Perspect. 1990;89:75–78.

9. Rubin R, Strayer DS. Rubins pathology; Clinicopathologic Foundations of Medicine. 5th ed. Lippincot Williams & Wilkins; 2008. Environmental and Nutritional pathology.

10. Advisory Committee on Childhood Lead Poisoning Prevention (ACCLPP)”. CDC. 2012 Retrieved 19 sept. 2014.

11. Rossi E. Low Level Environmental Lead Exposure - A Continuing Challenge. Clin Biochem Rev. 2008;29:63–70.